Powers of Food Safety Officer

Food safety officer have various powers, those are given below -

(1) The Food Safety Officer may –

• (a) take a sample – (i) of any food, or any substance, which appears to him to be intended for sale, or to have been sold for human consumption; or (ii) of any article of food or substance which is found by him on or in any such premises; which he has reason to believe that it may be required as evidence in proceedings under any of the provisions of this Act or of the regulations or orders made thereunder
• (b) seize any article of food which appears to the Food Safety Officer to be in contravention of this Act or the regulations made thereunder
• (c) keep it in the safe custody of the food business operator such article of food after taking a sample; and in both cases send the same for analysis to a Food Analyst for the local area within which such sample has been taken: Provided that where the Food Safety Officer keeps such article in the safe custody of the food business operator, he may require the food business operator to execute a bond for a sum of money equal to the value of such article with one or more sureties as the Food Safety Officer deems fit and the food business operator shall execute the bond accordingly. 

What is the Powers of Food Safety Officer

2) The Food Safety Officer may enter and inspect any place where the article of food is manufactured, or stored for sale, or stored for the manufacture of any other article of food, or exposed or exhibited for sale and where any adulterant is manufactured or kept, and take samples of such articles of food or adulterant for analysis. 

Powers of Food Safety Officer

3) Where any sample is taken, its cost calculated at the rate at which the article is usually sold to the public shall be paid to the person from whom it is taken. 

4) Where any article of food seized under clause (b) of subsection (1) is of a perishable nature and the Food Safety Officer is satisfied that such article of food is so deteriorated that it is unfit for human consumption, the Food Safety Officer may, after giving notice in writing to the food business operator, cause the same to be destroyed. 

5) The Food Safety Officer shall, in exercising the powers of entry upon, and inspection of any place under this section, follow, as far as may be, the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) relating to the search or inspection of a place by a police officer executing a search warrant issued under that Code. 

Food Safety Officer

6) Any adulterant found in the possession of a manufacturer or distributor of, or dealer in, any article of food or in any of the premises occupied by him as such and for the possession of which he is unable to account to the satisfaction of the Food Safety Officer and any books of account or other documents found in his possession or control and which would be useful for, or relevant to, any investigation or proceeding under this Act, may be seized by the Food Safety Officer and a sample of such adulterant submitted for analysis to a Food Analyst: Provided that no such books of account or other documents shall be seized by the Food Safety Officer except with the previous approval of the authority to which he is subordinate. 

Food Safety Officer

7) Where the Food Safety Officer takes any action under clause (a) of sub-section (1), or sub-section (2), or sub-section (4) or sub-section (6), he shall, call one or more persons to be present at the time when such action is taken and take his or their signatures. 

8) Where any books of account or other documents are seized under sub-section (6), the Food Safety Officer shall, within a period not exceeding thirty days from the date of seizure, return the same to the person from whom they were seized after copies thereof or extracts there from as certified by that person in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government have been taken: Provided that where such person refuses to so certify and a prosecution has been instituted against him under this Act, such books of account or other documents shall be returned to him only after copies thereof and extracts there from as certified by the court have been taken. 

Food Safety Officer

9)When any adulterant is seized under sub-section (6), the burden of proving that such adulterant is not meant for purposes of adulteration shall be on the person from whose possession such adulterant was seized. 

10) The Commissioner of Food Safety may from time to time issue guidelines with regard to exercise of powers of the Food Safety Officer, which shall be binding: Provided that the powers of such Food Safety Officer may also be revoked for a specified period by the Commissioner of Food Safety.

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Drug Inspector Power and duties

The Central Government or a State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as it thinks fit, having the prescribed qualifications, to be Inspectors for such areas as may be assigned to them by the Central Government or State Government, as the case may be.

The powers which may be exercised by an Inspector and the duties which may be performed by him, the drugs or (classes of drugs or cosmetics or classes of cosmetics) in relation to which and the conditions, limitations or restrictions subject to which, such powers and duties may be exercised or performed shall be such as may be prescribed.

No person who has any financial interest [in the import, manufacture or sale of drugs or cosmetics] shall be appointed to be an Inspector under this section.

Every Inspector shall be deemed to be public servant within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860), and shall be officially subordinate to such authority [having the prescribed qualifications,] as the Government appointing him may specify in this behalf.

Inspect

Powers of Inspectors

Subject to the provisions of section 23 and of any rules made by the Central Government in this behalf, an Inspector may, within the local limits of the area for which he is appointed—

Inspect

Any premises wherein any drug or cosmetic is being manufactured and the means employed for standardizing and testing the drug or cosmetic.

Any premises wherein any drug or cosmetic is being sold, or stocked or exhibited or offered for sale, or distributed.

Take samples of any drug or cosmetic

Which is being manufactured or being sold or is stocked or exhibited or offered for sale, or is being distributed.

From any person who is in the course of conveying, delivering or preparing to deliver such drug or cosmetic to a purchaser or a consignee.

Powers of Inspectors

At all reasonable times, with such assistance, if any, as he considers necessary

Search any person, who, he has reason to believe, has secreted about his person, any drug or cosmetic in respect of which an offence under this Chapter has been, or is being, committed; or

Enter and search any place in which he has reason to believe that an offence under this Chapter has been, or is being, committed.

Stop and search any vehicle, vessel or other conveyance which, he has reason to believe, is being used for carrying any drug or cosmetic in respect of which an offence under this Chapter has been, or is being, committed,

and order in writing the person in possession of the drug or cosmetic in respect of which the offence has been, or is being, committed, not to dispose of any stock of such drug or cosmetic for a specified period not exceeding twenty days, or, unless the alleged offence is such that the defect may be removed by the possessor of the drug or cosmetic, seize the stock of such drug or cosmetic and any substance or article by means of which the offence has been, or is being, committed or which may be employed for the commission of such offence.

(cc) examine any record, register, document or any other material object found 4 [with any person, or in any place, vehicle, vessel or other conveyance referred to in clause (c)], and seize the same if he has reason to believe that it may furnish evidence of the commission of an offence punishable under this Act or the rules made thereunder.

(cca) require any person to produce any record, register, or other document relating to the manufacture for sale or for distribution, stocking, exhibition for sale, offer for sale or distribution of any drug or cosmetic in respect of which he has reason to believe that an offence under this Chapter has been, or is being, committed.

(d) exercise such other powers as may be necessary for carrying out the purposes of this Chapter or any rules made thereunder.

(2) The provisions of [the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974)] shall, so far as may be, apply to any search or seizure under this Chapter as they apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under 1 [section 94] of the said Code.

(2A) Every record, register or other document seized under clause (cc) or produced under clause (cca) shall be returned to the person, from whom they were seized or who produce the same, within a period of twenty days of the date of such seizure or production, as the case may be, after copies thereof or extracts there from certified by that person, in such manner as may be prescribed, have been taken.

(3) If any person wilfully obstructs an Inspector in the exercise of the powers conferred upon him by or under this Chapter, [or refuses to produce any record, register or other document when so required under clause (cca) of subsection (1),] he shall be punishable with imprisonment which may extend to three years, or with fine, or with both.

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Absorption

Parmacokinetics

Pharmacokinetics includes absorption distribution metabolism and excretion of drugs (ADME).

Absorption

Absorption is movement of the drug from its site of administration into the circulation. Not only dose of the administered dose that get absorbed but also the rate of absorption is important.

Absorption

Biological Membrane

Biological membrane is bilayer of phospholipid and cholesterol. Cell membrane thickness is about 100Å. Extrinsic and intrinsic proteins molecules are adsorbed on the lipid bilaryer.

  

Transport is movement of drug molecules from site of administration to blood circulation so that it may reach to its site of action. 

Oral drug involves absorption step but parenteral route escape absorption step because parenteral drug directly administrated into the bloodstream.  

Those drugs, which are administered by buccal cavity called oral route. Many dosages forms are available in oral route including tablet, capsule, syrup, suspension, emulsion etc. When drug is reach to blood than its produce pharmacological action.  

Factor affecting absorption

Various factor are involves in affecting absorption.

Vascularity of absorbing surface

Blood circulation removes the drug from the site of absorption and maintains the concentration gradient across the absorbing surface.

Physical state of drugs

Physical states of drugs are also playing vital role in absorption. Liquid drugs are better absorbed than solid medications. Crystalline form drugs are more readily absorbed colloids form. Aqueous solutions are more quick absorbed than oily solutions. 

  

pH of Drugs

Basic drugs are not absorbed until they reach the small intestine. 

Example – Ephedrine

Acidic drugs are rapidly absorbed from the stomach. 

Example – Aspirin, barbiturates.    

Concentration

Passive diffusion depends on concentration. Drug given as concentrated solution is absorbed faster than from dilute solution.

Route of administration

This affect drug absorption because each route has its own specialty.

 

Aqueous solubility 

Drugs given in solid dosage form must dissolve in the aqueous biphasic before they are absorbed.   

Drug absorption mechanism or Drug Transporting System 

So many of mechanisms are involves in transporting drug from site to bloodstream. These mechanisms are known as drug transport system.  

classification of drug transporting system

Passive diffusion

Diffusion process is also known as simple diffusion. Cell membrane is not actively involved in this process.

In diffusion process, high concentration to low concentration through the semi-permeable membrane. 

Diffusion is an automatic process. In this process energy is not required.

The cell membrane is a lipid bilayer and hence the lipid soluble drugs diffuse quickly than the water soluble drugs. Diffusion is bidirectional process, where the rate of transfer of drug molecules is proportional to the concentration gradient across cell membrane. 

Small non-polar molecules (such as gases) and small uncharged polar molecules such as water urea etc follow the diffusion process for transporting inside the cell and outside the cell. 

Pinocytosis

This process is also known as cell engulfing phenomena. Small molecules are engulf by cell process known as pinocytosis.

 

Large molecules are engulf by cell process known as phagocytosis. 

Carrier Transport

All cell membrane express a host of trans-membrane proteins which serve as transporter or carrier for physiologically important ions, metabolites, nutrients and transmitters etc across the cell membrane.

Eg- ion channel, transporter, antiport, symport etc.

  

Facilitated diffusion

The transpoter is belonging to the super family of solute carrier (SLC) tansporters. SLC transporter operates passively without needing energy and translocates the substrate in the direction of its concentration(i.e. higher to low concentration).

Example – the entry of glucose into fat cells and muscles by the GLUT4 transporter.

Active transport

Transports of substance against its electrochemical gradient(i.e. low to high concentration). Hydrolysis of ATP is required to power for active transport (energy is required).

Active transport is two types –

Primary active transport

Single solute transport, low to high concentration though the transporter. 

 

Secondary active transport

Two solute transport, low to high concentration through the same transporter. 

Secondary active transport is two types –

Symport – When two solutes are transport through the same transporter in the same direction. 

Antiport – When two solutes are transport through the same transporter in the opposite direction.

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Blood Groups and Rh Factor

Blood Groups and Rh Factor

The antigens are genetic substance which composed of glycoprotein and glycolipid. These antigens are present on the surface of red blood cells. These Antigens are also known as agglutinogens. The antibodies are present in blood plasma, called agglutinin. 

Based on the presence or absence of various antigens and antibodies, blood is divided into different blood groups.

Blood divided into two major blood groups:

1. ABO group
2. Rh blood group

ABO group

Based on A and B antigen and antibody, ABO blood group are four blood types.

Type A: The Red blood cells display only A antigen and blood plasma contain anti-B antibody.  These people carries blood group A.

Type B: The red blood cells display only B antigen and blood plasma contain anti-A antibody.  These people carries blood group B.

Type AB: The Red blood cells display both A and B antigen but absence of antibody in blood plasma.  These people carries blood group AB.

Type O: In this type, red blood cells do not contain any antigen (either A nor B antigen) but blood plasma display both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. These people carries blood group O.

Rh blood group

Rh blood group was first found in rhesus monkey. That blood group contains a different type of antigen that is Rh antigen, called Rh factor. 

Red blood cells have Rh antigen which is Rh positive (Rh+) and people whose absent of Rh antigen are designated Rh negative (Rh-).  

Function of blood

Function of blood are given below

Transportation

• Blood transport various essential elements to cells, these elements are necessary for many metabolic reaction.
• Blood carry oxygen to cells and take back carbon dioxide to lungs.
• Blood carrier for many hormone and enzymes.
• Blood transport nutrition and essential elements to cells for growth and development. 

Regulation

• Blood help maintain homeostasis of all body fluids.
• Blood maintain pH through using buffers. Blood also regulate body temperature. 

Protection

• Blood make a gel like structure, called clot, which protect against blood excessive loss from the cardiovascular system after the injury.
• Various type of blood cells protect against disease in a variety of ways.
• White blood cells protect against disease by phagocytosis.

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Scope of Anatomy and Physiology

Scope of anatomy and physiology

Anatomy (Ana means up and tomy means process of cutting) is a science that deals with the study of structure of the body and the relationship of various parts of each other.

Physiology 

Physiology is a science that deals with the study of body functions (how the body parts work).

Scope of anatomy and physiology are

Radiographic anatomy: Study of body structures that can be visualized with X-rays.

Embryology: Study of first 8 weeks of development after fertilization of a human egg.

Cytology: Study of structure and function of cell.

Histology:  Study of structure and function of tissue.

Pathology: Study of nature and cause of disease.

Immunology: Study of body defenes against disease causing agents.

Neurophysiology: Study of function of brain, spinal cord and nerve cell.  

Endocrinology: Study of functions of hormones.

Opthanology: Study of structure and function of eyes.

Otology: Study of structure and function of ears.

Odontology: Study of structure and function of teeth.

Respiratory physiology: Study of functions of lungs and breathing pathway.

Cardiovascular physiology: Study of functions of heart and blood vessels.

Renal Physiology: Study of function of kidney (renal).

Osteology: Study of structure and function of bones.

Arthrology: Study of structure and function of joints.

Myology: Study of structure and function of muscles.

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Physiology of Muscle Contraction

Physiology of muscle contraction

Release of Acetylcholine

Action potential comes to nerve terminal, that potential open the voltage gated calcium channels at nerve terminal. The movement of calcium ion inside the cell. Vesicles filled with acetylcholine present at nerve terminal. Calcium evoked vesicle of Ach. Ach vesicles are ruptured and release Ach.

Activation of Ach Receptors

Two molecules of Ach Ach binding  to Ach receptor on the motor end plate. Voltage gated sodium channels are open and influx of sodium ion in muscle fibers. 

Production of Muscle Action Potential 

Numbers of sodium ion inside muscle fiber are increase and generate action potential that potential cause muscle contraction.

Sodium ions enter inside the cells and potassium ions comes out from cell, changes of ion produce electrical charge. Both interior and exterior of muscle cell become positively charge.

Membrane get depolarized, this depolarization cause contraction. 

When the muscle contraction is over, then acetylcholine destroyed by acetylcholinersterase. After this potassium ions move into the cell and sodium ions move out of the cell, this potential stage called repolarization. 

Physiology of Muscle Contraction Flow Chart

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Neuromuscular Junction

Neuromuscular junction

Synapse between a somatic motor neuron and skeletal muscle fiber, called neuromuscular junction (NMJ).

Axon of motor neuron is divided in many branches, each branch of axon end attach to the muscle membrane (sarcolemma). This region of sarcolemma where axon terminal is embedded, known as the motor end plate.

 
Each branch of a somatic motor neuron form a junction with the skeletal muscle fiber.

Axon terminal 

Axon part of nerve fibers divided into several branches, end of a single axon branch, known as axon terminal.

Motor end plate

A single branch of axon terminal is embedded at muscle membrane. Bulb like expansion of axon terminal is occurs at sarcolemma. 

Presynaptic membrane 

Membrane of nerve ending.

Postsynaptic membrane 

Membrane of muscle fiber.

Synaptic cleft

Space between postsynaptic and presynaptic membrane.

Transfer of information from motor nerve ending to muscle fiber through Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) to initiate muscle contraction.

A nerve fiber arise from spinal cord that end attach to a muscle fiber. That point where nerve fiber attach to the muscle fiber, make a junction called Neuromuscular junction
(NMJ). 

Gap between the end of neuron and muscle fibers or Junction or synapse between terminal branch of nerve fibers and muscle fiber, called neuromuscular junction. 

Neuromuscular transmission

A nerve action potential (nerve impulse) elicits muscle action potential in the following way :

1. Release of acetylcholine.
2. Activation of Ach receptors.
3. Production of muscle action potential.

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What Is Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue

Connective tissue support, protect and bind together other tissue. Connective tissue is the diversity of cells which containing large quantity of extracellular matrix. Tissue-

Classification of connective tissue

1. Loose connective tissue
2. Dense connective tissue
3. Cartilage
4. Bone tissue

Loose connective tissue

Fibers are loosely arranged between the cells in loose connective tissue.

Loose connective tissues are three types:

Areolar connective tissue

It consists of fibers (collagen, elastic and reticular) and several types of cells (Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, mast cell, plasma cell and other kinds of blood cells). 

Areolar connective tissues are one of the most distributed connective tissue.

Composition: 

Fibers: Collagen, elastic and reticular.

Cells:  Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, mast cell, plasma cell and other kinds of blood cells.

Location: 

Subcutaneous deep to skin, around blood vessels, nerve.

Function:

Areolar connective tissue provide support, elasticity and strength.

Adipose connective tissue

Adipose tissue composed with fibroblast cells (also known as adipocytes cells) that cells are specialized for storage for fats (triglycerides).

Composition: 

Cells: adipocytes or fibroblast.

 

Location:  

Around the heart kidneys, behind eyeball.

Function:

• Protects and supports body organs.
• Reduces heat loss through skin.
• In new born, Generate heat to maintain normal body temperature. 

Reticular connective tissue

Composition: 

Fiber: reticular fibers

Cells: reticular cells 

Location: 

Spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow.

Function: 

• Help to binds smooth muscle tissue (SMT) cells.
• Help to form stroma (shape) organ.  
• Help to remove aged blood cells in spleen.

Dense connective tissue

The fibers arranged between the cells are thick and closely packed. 

Dense connective tissues are three types:

Dense regular connective tissue

Composition:

 
Fibers: mainly collagen fibers are regularly arranged in bundles.  Fibroblast present in rows between bundles.   

Matrix: white and shiny 

Location: 

Form tendons (binds muscle to bone), and some ligament (bind bone to bone).

Function: 

Provide strong attachment between many structure such as ligaments and tendons.

 

Dense irregular connective tissue

Composition: 

 
Fibers: 

Collagen fibers are irregularly arranged in bundles with few fibroblast.

Location:

Fibrous pericardium of heart, heart valve, joint capsule

Function: 

 
Help to pulling strength in many directions.    

Elastic connective tissue

Composition: 

Elastic fibers are arranged with fibroblast.

Location: 

Wall of elastic arteries, lung tissue, bronchial tube.

Function:

• Allow stretching of various organs for example; lung- inhale or exhale. 
• After stretching recoil to original shape of organ.

Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage

Composition: 

Resilient gel,  fine collagen fibers.

 
Location: 

Nose, trachea, at the end of bones and fetal skeleton etc.

Function: 

• Provide surface for support and flexibility. 
• It help for movement at joint, hyaline cartilage present at both end of bone, it reduce the fraction.

Fibrocartilage

Composition: 

Thick collagen fibers and perichondrium absent.

Location: 

Cartilage pad of knee, intervertebral disc.

Function:

• Joining and support structures together.
• Make it strongest type of cartilage.

Elastic cartilage

Composition: 

Elastic fibers and perichondrium present.

Location: 

External ear, epiglottis 

Function: 

 
Help to maintain shape of certain structure of organs of body.

Bone tissue

Composition: 

Consist of haversian system that contain lacunae, lamellae, osteocytes, canaliculi and central canals. 

 Spaces between trabeculae are filled with red bone marrow.

Location: 

Bone tissue make up the various parts of bones.

Functions: 

Protect, support and store many minerals. 

Liquid connective tissue

Blood tissue

Composition: 

Blood plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets.

Location: 

Blood vessels and heart chambers.

Function:  

RBCs - Transport oxygen. 

WBCs - Built immune system.

Platelets - Essential for blood clotting.

  

Lymph

Lymph is clear extracellular fluid. Lymph is similar to blood plasma but with less protein.

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Disorders of Joint

Disorders of Joint 

Joint disorder may be caused due to infection and inflammation. 

The following joint disorders are caused:

Arthritis

It is a inflammatory disease, where the inflammation occur in joints. Arthritis can cause at any age but commonly cause in middle and old age group human beings. 

Arthritis are varies types:

Osteoarthritis

This disease cause due to degeneration of articular cartilage. Articular cartilage becomes thinner than the fraction between two bone increase and difficulty in movement also caused. 

Symptoms: pain, stiffness and decrease in movement.

Treatment: steroids.

    

Juvenile arthritis

This disease cause early age group about below the age of 16 years.

Infective arthritis

Bacterial infection may cause arthritis, called infective arthritis. 

The causation of infective arthritis are:

• Injury
• Chronic illness
• Post effect of injury
• Intra-articular infection
• Immune deficiency disorder 
• Diabetes mellitus 

Ankylosing spondylitis

Fusion of axial skeleton is cause ankylosing spondylitis. Chronic inflammation is cause in spine and sacro-iliac joints.

Symptoms: stiffness, low back pain

Treatment: steroids

Rheumatic disease 

when joint, connective tissue and bones are affected simultaneously, called rheumatic disease.     

Gout 

It is a metabolic disorder. The deposition of sodium urate crystals in joints and cause gout. When uric acid level increases due to enhance production or reduce excretion by the renal. 

Gout may affected commonly joints are ankle, wrist, elbow and knee.

Sprains, strains and dislocation at joints: 

• Shoulder joint dislocation
• Sternoclavicular joint dislocation
• Elbow joint dislocation
• Hip joint dislocation

• Knee joint dislocation: following disorder may occur at knee joint:

1. Slipped cartilage 
2. Acute synovitis 
3. Bursitis 

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