EATING HEALTHY DIET DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Eating a healthy diet is very important during the COVID-19 pandemic. What we eat and drink can affect our body’s ability to prevent, fight and recover from infections.

While no foods or dietary supplements can prevent or cure COVID-19 infection, healthy diets are important for supporting immune systems. Good nutrition can also reduce the likelihood of developing other health problems, including obesity, heart disease, diabetes and some types of cancer.

For babies, a healthy diet means exclusive breastfeeding in the first six months, with the introduction of nutritious and safe foods to complement breast milk from age 6 months to 2 years and beyond. For young children, a healthy and balanced diet is essential for growth and development. For older people, it can help to ensure healthier and more active lives.

EATING HEALTHY DIET DURING COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Tips for maintaining a healthy diet:

Eat a variety of food, including fruits and vegetables

• Every day, eat a mix of whole grains like wheat, maize and rice, legumes like lentils and beans, plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables , with some foods from animal sources (e.g. meat, fish, eggs and milk).

Eat a variety of food, including fruits and vegetables

• Choose wholegrain foods like unprocessed maize, millet, oats, wheat and brown rice when you can; they are rich in valuable fibre and can help you feel full for longer.

• For snacks, choose raw vegetables, fresh fruit, and unsalted nuts.

Cut back on salt

• Limit salt intake to 5 grams (equivalent to a teaspoon) a day.

• When cooking and preparing foods, use salt sparingly and reduce use of salty sauces and condiments (like soy sauce, stock or fish sauce).

• If using canned or dried food, choose varieties of vegetables, nuts and fruit, without added salt and sugars.

• Remove the salt shaker from the table, and experiment with fresh or dried herbs and spices for added flavor instead.

• Check the labels on food and choose products with lower sodium content.

Cut back on salt

Eat moderate amounts of fats and oils

• Replace butter, ghee and lard with healthier fats like olive, soy, sunflower or corn oil when cooking.

• Choose white meats like poultry and fish which are generally lower in fats than red meat; trim meat of visible fat and limit the consumption of processed meats.

• Select low-fat or reduced-fat versions of milk and dairy products.

Eat moderate amounts of fats and oils

• Avoid processed, baked and fried foods that contain industrially produced trans-fat.

• Try steaming or boiling instead of frying food when cooking.

Limit sugar intake

• Limit intake of sweets and sugary drinks such as fizzy drinks, fruit juices and juice drinks, liquid and powder concentrates, flavored water, energy and sports drinks, ready-to-drink tea and coffee and flavored milk drinks.

• Choose fresh fruits instead of sweet snacks such as cookies, cakes and chocolate. When other dessert options are chosen, ensure that they are low in sugar and consume small portions.

Limit sugar intake

• Avoid giving sugary foods to children. Salt and sugars should not be added to complementary foods given to children under 2 years of age, and should be limited beyond that age.

Stay hydrated: Drink enough water

Good hydration is crucial for optimal health. Whenever available and safe for consumption, tap water is the healthiest and cheapest drink. Drinking water instead of sugar-sweetened beverages is a simple way to limit your intake of sugar and excess calories.

Stay hydrated: Drink enough water

Avoid hazardous and harmful alcohol use

Alcohol is not a part of a healthy diet. Drinking alcohol does not protect against COVID-19 and can be dangerous. Frequent or excessive alcohol consumption increases your immediate risk of injury, as well as causing longer-term effects like liver damage, cancer, heart disease and mental illness. There is no safe level of alcohol consumption.

Avoid hazardous and harmful alcohol use

Breastfeed babies and young children

Breast milk is the ideal food for infants. It is safe, clean and contains antibodies which help protect against many common childhood illnesses. Babies should be breastfed exclusively during the first 6 months of life, as breast milk provides all the nutrients and fluids they need.

• From 6 months of age, breast milk should be complemented with a variety of adequate, safe and nutrient-dense foods. Breastfeeding should continue under babies at 2 years of age or beyond.

Women with COVID-19 can breastfeed if they wish to do so and should take infection prevention and control measures.

Breastfeed babies and young children

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How to Protect yourself and others from the spread COVID-19

You can reduce your chances of being infected or spreading COVID-19 by taking some simple precautions:

• Regularly and thoroughly clean your hands with an alcohol-based hand rub or wash them with soap and water. Why? Washing your hands with soap and water or using alcohol-based hand rub kills viruses that may be on your hands. 

Safe use of alcohol based hand sanitizers

• Maintain at least 1 metre (3 feet) distance between yourself and others. Why? When someone coughs, sneezes, or speaks they spray small liquid droplets from their nose or mouth which may contain virus. If you are too close, you can breathe in the droplets, including the COVID-19 virus if the person has the disease.

Maintain Distance

• Avoid going to crowded places. Why? Where people come together in crowds, you are more likely to come into close contact with someone that has COIVD-19 and it is more difficult to maintain physical distance of 1 metre (3 feet).

Avoid going to crowded places

• Avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth. Why? Hands touch many surfaces and can pick up viruses. Once contaminated, hands can transfer the virus to your eyes, nose or mouth. From there, the virus can enter your body and infect you.

Avoid touching eyes

• Make sure you, and the people around you, follow good respiratory hygiene. This means covering your mouth and nose with your bent elbow or tissue when you cough or sneeze. Then dispose of the used tissue immediately and wash your hands. Why? Droplets spread virus. By following good respiratory hygiene, you protect the people around you from viruses such as cold, flu and COVID-19.

good respiratory hygiene

Stay home and self-isolate even with minor symptoms such as cough, headache, mild fever, until you recover. Have someone bring you supplies. 

Stay home and self-isolate

If you need to leave your house, wear a mask to avoid infecting others. Why? Avoiding contact with others will protect them from possible COVID-19 and other viruses.

Mask

If you have a fever, cough and difficulty breathing, seek medical attention, but call by telephone in advance if possible and follow the directions of your local health authority. Why? National and local authorities will have the most up to date information on the situation in your area. Calling in advance will allow your health care provider to quickly direct you to the right health facility. This will also protect you and help prevent spread of viruses and other infections.

Call for Help

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Best and Safe use of alcohol based hand sanitizers

To protect yourself and others against COVID-19, clean your hands frequently and thoroughly. Use alcohol-based hand sanitizer or wash your hands with soap and water. If you use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer, make sure you use and store it carefully.

use of alcohol based hand sanitizers

Keep alcohol-based hand sanitizers out of children’s reach. Teach them how to apply the sanitizer and monitor its use.

Safe use of alcohol based hand sanitizers

• Apply a coin-sized amount on your hands. There is no need to use a large amount of the product.

• Avoid touching your eyes, mouth and nose immediately after using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer, as it can cause irritation.

• Hand sanitizers recommended to protect against COVID-19 are alcohol-based and therefore can be flammable. Do not use before handling fire or cooking.

• Under no circumstance, drink or let children swallow an alcohol-based hand sanitizer. It can be poisonous.

• Remember that washing your hands with soap and water is also effective against COVID-19.

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The genetic code

Genetic information is information for synthesizing proteins, and since proteins consist of 20 different amino acids bonded in particular sequences, the genetic information must tell how to position the amino acids correctly in a polypeptide chain.

It is believed that each of the 20 different amino acids is represented in a DNA molecule by a particular sequence of 3-nucleotide groups. That is, the sequence C, G, A in a DNA strand represents one kind of amino acid; the sequence G, C, A represents another kind, and T, T, A still another kind.

Genetic Code For Certain Amino Acids 

Thus, the sequence in which the nucleotide groups are arranged within a DNA molecule can denote the arrangement of amino acids within a protein molecule. This method of storing information used for the synthesis of particular protein molecules is termed the genetic code.

Although DNA molecules are located in the chromatin within a cell's nucleus, protein synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm. Therefore the genetic information must somehow be transferred from the nucleus into the cytoplasm. This transfer of information is the function of certain RNA molecules.

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Powers of Food Safety Officer

Food safety officer have various powers, those are given below -

(1) The Food Safety Officer may –

• (a) take a sample – (i) of any food, or any substance, which appears to him to be intended for sale, or to have been sold for human consumption; or (ii) of any article of food or substance which is found by him on or in any such premises; which he has reason to believe that it may be required as evidence in proceedings under any of the provisions of this Act or of the regulations or orders made thereunder
• (b) seize any article of food which appears to the Food Safety Officer to be in contravention of this Act or the regulations made thereunder
• (c) keep it in the safe custody of the food business operator such article of food after taking a sample; and in both cases send the same for analysis to a Food Analyst for the local area within which such sample has been taken: Provided that where the Food Safety Officer keeps such article in the safe custody of the food business operator, he may require the food business operator to execute a bond for a sum of money equal to the value of such article with one or more sureties as the Food Safety Officer deems fit and the food business operator shall execute the bond accordingly. 

What is the Powers of Food Safety Officer

2) The Food Safety Officer may enter and inspect any place where the article of food is manufactured, or stored for sale, or stored for the manufacture of any other article of food, or exposed or exhibited for sale and where any adulterant is manufactured or kept, and take samples of such articles of food or adulterant for analysis. 

Powers of Food Safety Officer

3) Where any sample is taken, its cost calculated at the rate at which the article is usually sold to the public shall be paid to the person from whom it is taken. 

4) Where any article of food seized under clause (b) of subsection (1) is of a perishable nature and the Food Safety Officer is satisfied that such article of food is so deteriorated that it is unfit for human consumption, the Food Safety Officer may, after giving notice in writing to the food business operator, cause the same to be destroyed. 

5) The Food Safety Officer shall, in exercising the powers of entry upon, and inspection of any place under this section, follow, as far as may be, the provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 (2 of 1974) relating to the search or inspection of a place by a police officer executing a search warrant issued under that Code. 

Food Safety Officer

6) Any adulterant found in the possession of a manufacturer or distributor of, or dealer in, any article of food or in any of the premises occupied by him as such and for the possession of which he is unable to account to the satisfaction of the Food Safety Officer and any books of account or other documents found in his possession or control and which would be useful for, or relevant to, any investigation or proceeding under this Act, may be seized by the Food Safety Officer and a sample of such adulterant submitted for analysis to a Food Analyst: Provided that no such books of account or other documents shall be seized by the Food Safety Officer except with the previous approval of the authority to which he is subordinate. 

Food Safety Officer

7) Where the Food Safety Officer takes any action under clause (a) of sub-section (1), or sub-section (2), or sub-section (4) or sub-section (6), he shall, call one or more persons to be present at the time when such action is taken and take his or their signatures. 

8) Where any books of account or other documents are seized under sub-section (6), the Food Safety Officer shall, within a period not exceeding thirty days from the date of seizure, return the same to the person from whom they were seized after copies thereof or extracts there from as certified by that person in such manner as may be prescribed by the Central Government have been taken: Provided that where such person refuses to so certify and a prosecution has been instituted against him under this Act, such books of account or other documents shall be returned to him only after copies thereof and extracts there from as certified by the court have been taken. 

Food Safety Officer

9)When any adulterant is seized under sub-section (6), the burden of proving that such adulterant is not meant for purposes of adulteration shall be on the person from whose possession such adulterant was seized. 

10) The Commissioner of Food Safety may from time to time issue guidelines with regard to exercise of powers of the Food Safety Officer, which shall be binding: Provided that the powers of such Food Safety Officer may also be revoked for a specified period by the Commissioner of Food Safety.

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Powers and Duties of Food Safety Officer

In India, Power duties and responsibilities of food safety officer are given below - 

(i) Without prejudice to the powers conferred on him under section 38 of the Act, where the Food Safety Officer is of the opinion or he has reason(s) to be recorded in writing that in the given situation it is not possible to comply with the provision of section 38 (1) (c) or the proviso to section 38(1) for reasons like non availability of the Food Business Operator, the Food Safety Officer may seize the adulterant or food which is unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter, may seal the premises for investigation after taking a sample of such adulterant or food for analysis.

Powers and Duties of Food Safety Officer

(ii) Where the Food Safety Officer is of the opinion or he has reason(s) to believe that any person engaged in selling, handling or manufacturing any article of food is suffering from or harbouring the germs of any infectious disease, he may cause such person to be examined by a qualified medical professional duly authorized by the Designated Officer. Provided that where such person is a female, she shall be examined by a qualified lady medical professional duly authorized by the Designated Officer. If on such examination the qualified medical professional certifies that such person is suffering from any such disease, the Food Safety Officer may by order in writing under intimation to the Designated Officer direct such person not to take part in selling or manufacturing any article of food. 

(iii) Furthermore, it shall be the duty of the Food Safety Officer-

(a) To inspect, as frequently as may be prescribed by the Designated Officer, all food establishments licensed for manufacturing, handling, packing or selling of an article of food within the area assigned to him.

(b) To satisfy himself that the conditions of licenses are being complied with by each of the Food Business Operators carrying on business within the area assigned to him and report to the Designated Officer.

Powers and Duties of Food Safety Officer

(c) To procure and send for analysis if necessary, samples of any article of food which he has reason to believe or on the basis of information received including from a purchaser are bein manufactured, stocked or sold or exhibited for sale in contravention of the provisions of the Act, or rules and regulations framed thereunder. 

(d) To draw samples for purposes of surveillance, survey and research, which shall not be used for prosecution.

(e) To investigate any complaint which may be made to him in writing in respect of any contravention of the provisions of the Act, or rules framed thereunder; (f) To maintain a data base of all Food Business within the area assigned to him.

(g) To recommend Desidnated Officer to issue of improvement notices to the Food Business Operator whenever necessary.

(h) To maintain a record of all inspections made and action taken by him in the performance of his duties, including the taking of samples and seizure of stocks, and to submit copies of such records to the Designated Officer as directed in this regard; 12 adhkarion ke karya avam dayitava 3 (i) To make such inquiries and inspections as may be necessary to detect the manufacture, storage or sale of articles of food in contravention of the Act or rules framed thereunder.

(j) To stop and inspect any vehicle suspected to contain any unsafe food or food which does not comply with the provisions of this Act and rules, intended for sale or delivery for human consumption.

(k) To recommend to the Designated Officer giving specific grounds, suitable action in regard to licenses issued to any Food Business Operator, if on inspection the Food Safety Officer finds that the Food Business Operator had violated the conditions for grant of license; 

(l) To carry out food safety surveillance to identify and address the safety hazards.

Powers and Duties of Food Safety Officer

(m) To respond to incidents of food poisoning in his area and to send report to and assist the Designated Officer to enable him to initiate corrective action.

(n) To facilitate preparation of Food safety plans for Panchayat and Municipalities in accordance with the parameters and guidelines given in schedule IV of Chapter 3 of Regulations. 

(o) To detain imported packages which are suspected to contain articles of food, the import or sale of which is prohibited.

(p) To coordinate with the Food Business Operators within his area of operation and facilitate the introduction of food safety systems by the Food Business Operators. 

(q) To perform such other duties, as may be entrusted to him by the Designated Officer or Food Safety Commissioner having jurisdiction in the local area concerned.

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Growth hormone Notes Summary

Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin) is a protein that generally stimulates body cells to increase in size and undergo more rapid cell division than usual. How GH accomplishes this action is not completely understood. It is known, however, that the hormone enhances the movement of amino acids through cell membranes and causes an increase in the rate at which cells convert these molecules into proteins.

GH also causes cells to decrease the rate at which they utilize carbohydrates and to increase the rate at which they use fats. The hormone's effect on amino acids seems to be the more important one.

Although the exact mechanism for controlling growth hormone secretion is unknown, it appears to involve two substances from the hypothalamus called growth hormone-releasingfactor (GRF) and growth hormone release-inhibiting factor (GIH or somatostatin).

A person's nutritional state also seems to play a role in the control of GH, for more of it is released during periods of protein deficiency and of abnormally low blood glucose concentration. Conversely, when blood protein and glucose levels are increased, there is a resulting decrease in growth hormone secretion. 

Apparently the hypothalamus is able to sense changes in the concentrations of certain blood nutrients, and it releases GRF in response to some of them.

If growth hormone is not secreted in sufficient amounts during childhood, body growth is limited, and a type of dwarfism (hypopituitary dwarfism) results. In this condition, body parts are usually correctly proportioned and mental development is normal. However, an abnormally low secretion of growth hormone is usually accompanied by lessened secretions from other anterior lobe hormones, leading to additional hormone deficiency symptoms. For example, a hypopituitary dwarf often fails to develop adult sexual features unless hormone therapy is provided.

Hypopituitary dwarfism is sometimes treated by administering growth hormone, and this treatment may stimulate a rapid increase in height. The procedure, however, must be started before the epiphyseal disks of the person's long bones have become ossified. Otherwise growth in height is not possible.

An over secretion of growth hormone during childhood may result in gigantism— a condition in which the person's height may exceed 8 feet. Gigantism, which is relatively rare, is usually accompanied by a tumor of the pituitary gland. In such cases, various pituitary hormones in addition to GH are likely to be secreted excessively, so that a giant often suffers from a variety of metabolic disturbances and has a shortened life expectancy. 

Gigantism

If growth hormone is secreted excessively in an adult, after the epiphyses of the long bones have ossified, the person does not grow taller. The soft tissues, however, may continue to enlarge and the bones may become thicker. As a consequence, an affected individual may develop greatly enlarged hands and feet, a protruding jaw, and a large tongue and nose. This condition is called acromegaly, and like gigantism, it is often associated with a pituitary tumor.

Acromegaly patient 

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Cell membrane definition and function

Human Cell

 It is estimated that an adult human body consists of about 75 trillion cells. These cells have much in common, yet those in different tissues van, in a number of ways. For example, they vary considerably in size. Cell sizes are measured in units called micrometers (microns). A micrometer equals 1/1000th of a millimeter and is symbolized Mm. Measured in micrometers, a human egg cell is about 140 microns meter in diameter and is just barely visible to an unaided eye. This is large when compared to a red blood cell, which is about 7.5 microns meter in diameter, or the most common white blood cells, which van from 10-12 microns meter in diameter. On the other hand, smooth muscle cells can be between 20-500 microns meter long.

 
Cells also vary in shape, and typically their shapes are closely related to their functions. For instance, nerve cells often have long, threadlike extensions that transmit nerve impulses from one part of the body to another. The epithelial cells that line the inside of the mouth serve to shield underlying cells. These protective cells are thin, flattened, and tightly packed, somewhat like the tiles of a floor Muscle cells, which function to pull parts closer together, are slender and rod-like, with their ends attached to the parts they move.
 

Composite Cell

Since cells vary so greatly in size, shape, and function, it is not possible to describe a typical cell. For purposes of discussion, however, it is convenient to imagine that one exists. Such a composite cell would contain parts observed in many kinds of cells, even though some of these cells lack parts included in the imagined structure.
 

Commonly a cell consists of two major parts, one within the other and each surrounded by a thin membrane. The inner portion is called the cell nucleus and it is enclosed by a nuclear membrane. A mass of fluid called cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus and is encircled by a cytoplasmic or cell membrane. Within the cytoplasm are other membranes that separate it into small subdivisions. These include networks of membranes and membranes that mark off tiny. distinct parts called cytoplasmic or ganelles. These organelles perform specific metabolic functions necessary for cell survival. The nucleus, on the other hand, directs the overall activities of the cell.

Cell Membrane

The cell membrane is the outermost limit of the cell, but it is more than a simple envelope surrounding the cellular contents. It is an actively functioning part of the living material and many important metabolic reactions actually take place on its surface. The membrane is extremely thin—visible only with the aid of an electron microscope—but is flexible and somewhat elastic It typically has a complex surface with many outpourings and infoldings that provide extra surface area. The membrane quick seals minute breaks, but if it is extensively damaged, the cell contents escape, and the cell dies.

In addition to maintaining the wholeness of the cell, the membrane serves as a "gateway" through which chemicals enter and leave. This gate acts in a special manner; it allows some substances to pass and excludes others. When a membrane functions in this way, it is called selectively permeable. A permeable membrane, on the other hand, is one that allows all materials to pass through. The mechanism by which the membrane accomplishes its selective function is not well understood. It is known, however, that the mechanism involves the chemical nature of the membrane— which is about 55% protein and 42% lipid (usually phospholipid and cholesterol) with a small amount of carbohydrate The lipids, for example, are largely insoluble in water. They form a boundary layer that separates the water)- contents of the cell from its watery environment, and prevent many water soluble substances from passing through. The way molecules are positioned within the cell membrane is not well understood either However, evidence indicates that the structural qualities of the membrane are due primarily to the molecules of phospholipids, which are arranged in two layers (bi layer).
 

Although there appear to be onh a fetty pes of lipid molecules in the membrane, there are many kinds of proteins. Some of these protein molecules are quite large and seem to extend across the lipid layer, other kinds are located on the outer surface of the lipid layer and project outward from it, and still other kinds reside on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. The phospholipid molecules and the protein molecules embedded among them can more sideways in any- direction, so that instead of being a rigid structure, the membrane is flexible and acts like a thin film of liquid—a liquid of phospholipid molecules with protein molecules floating in it.

The carbohydrates of the membrane all seem to be associated with the outer surface, where some of them are combined with lipids (glycolipids) and others are combined with proteins (glycoproteins).
 

Since different kinds of molecules are located on the inner and outer surfaces of the membrane, it is not surprising that the two surfaces have functional differences For instance, various molecules on the outer surface function as receptor sites that can combine with specific chemicals, such as hormones. Many of the proteins of the inner surface function as enzymes that speed chemical reactions, such as those that help vital substances pass through the membrane.

Since the membrane is largely phospholipid, molecules that are soluble in lipids can pass through it easily. On the other hand, molecules of substances like water, which do not dissolve in lipids, cannot penetrate the phospholipid layers. However, water and certain other small molecules can pass through some of the regions where large protein molecules span the thickness of the membrane, creating minute passageways or "pores." Other pores serve as selective channels that allow only particular substances to pass through For example some channels control the movements of sodium and potassium ions and play important roles in the functions of muscle and nerve cells.Many cells, such as blood cells, are not in direct contact with their neighbors because fluid filled space (extracellular space) separates them. In other tissues, the cells are tightly packed, and the membranes of these cells are commonly connected by inter cellular junctions. One type of specialized junction, a desmosome. serves to rivet or "spot weld" adjacent skin cells so they form a reinforced structural unit. The membranes of certain other cells, such as those in heart muscle, are interconnected by gap junctions in the form of tubular channels. These channels link the cytoplasm of adjacent cells. They allow ions and nutrients, such as sugars, amino acids, and nucleotide, and certain other relatively small molecules to be exchanged between them.

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To study the effects of Ach, Physostigmine and adrenaline on rabbit intestine

Principle

Rabbit intestine is a smooth muscle which shows regular pendular movement (i.e. continuous contraction and relaxation). Therefore, to study the effect of drugs on intestinal movement rabbit intestine is ideal preparation. Rabbit intestine is supplied by autonomic nervous system. Rabbit intestine contains muscarinic receptors and adrenergic receptors. Muscarinic receptor agonist like Ach produces contraction of rabbit intestine and physostigmine increases the spasm and pendular movements. The muscarinic actions and effects can be blocked by muscarinic blockers.

Adrenaline acts on α and β receptors and exhibit inhibitory effect on pendular movements. The actions of adrenaline are blocked by adrenoceptor blockers viz. α-receptor blockers and β-receptor blockers.

Equipment required

1) Kymograph

2) Student thermostatic organ bath

3) Aeration tube

4) Aerator

5) Aeration tube holder

6) Frontal writing lever

7) Lever holder

8) Screw clip

9) Haemostatic forceps

10) Mariotte bottle

11) Rubber tubes

12) Tuberculine syringe

13) 26 no. needle

14) Scissor

15) Forceps

16) Suturing needle

17) Carbogen gas cylinder with regulator.

Animal Required

Rabbit intestine.

Physiological solution required

Tyrode solution.

Drug solution required

1) Acetylcholine 20µg/ml

2) Physostigmine sulphate 10µg/ml

3) Atropine sulphate 4µg/ml

4) Adrenaline hydrogen tartrate 20µg/ml

5) Propranolol hydrochloride 100µg/ml

Procedure

1) Fast a rabbit for 12 hour period.

2) Set up assembly for rabbit intestine experiment.

3) Balance frontal writing lever using plasticine and apply a tension of 500 mg.

4) Fill the outer jacket of student organ bath with water.

5) Set the thermostat of the student organ bath at 370C and put the switch on.

6) Fill the mariotte bottle with tyrode solution and control the flow of tyrode solution to inner organ bath using haemostatic forceps.

7) When the temperature of the tyrode solution reaches 370C, sacrifice a rabbit by giving a blow on its head and cutting the carotid artery.

8) Open the abdominal region and identify the intestine.

9) Remove the intestine and place it in a petri dish containing tyrode solution at 370C and trim away the mesentry.

10) Cut a piece of intestine (approximately 3-4 cm) and using surgical suturing needle tie a thread at each end, taking care to see that the lumen of the intestine remained open.

11) Tie one end of the thread to the hook of the aeration tube and the other a frontal writing lever.

12) Stabilize the tissue for the 30 minutes period.

13) Aerate the rabbit intestine in the inner organ bath with a mixture of oxygen (95%) and CO2 (5%) (carbogen).

14) Required the normal pendular movement of the rabbit intestine on the drum for 30 seconds. At the end of 30 seconds add 0.1ml of Ach into the inner organ bath and record the spasmogenic effect of the drug for 30 seconds. After recording the response for 30 seconds switch off the kymograph. Immediately open the outlet of the inner organ bath and remove the tyrode solution present in the inner organ bath. Again fill the inner organ bath with fresh tyrode solution and keep it for 60 seconds. Repeat the washing procedure 3-4 times or till the writing point of frontal lever comes to the normal pendular movement base line.

15) Then record the response of 0.1ml physostigmine solution. Give 3-4 washing for recovery.

16) Record the response of 0.1 ml adrenaline solution. Give 3-4 washing for recovery.

17) Add 0.1 ml of atropine sulfate solution into the inner organ bath, allow it to act for 60 seconds then record the response of Ach in the presence of atropine sufate. Give 3-4 washing for recovery.

18) Add 0.1 ml of atropine sulfate solution into the inner organ bath, allow it to act for 60 seconds then record the response of physostigmine in the presence of atropine sufate. Give 3-4 washing for recovery.

19) Add 0.1 ml of propranolol solution into the inner organ bath, allow it to act for 60 seconds then record the response of adrenaline solution in the presence of atropine propranolol. Give 3-4 washing for recovery.

Observation and conclusion

Acetylcholine produces contraction in rabbit intestine. Atropine sulfate is a muscarinic receptor blocker; therefore it reduces the spasmogenic effect caused by Ach.

Physostigmine also produces mild spasmogenic effect and increases the peristaltic movement of the intestine. Atropine sulphate blocks the effect of the physostogmine.

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